Policy Glossary

A proposed change to a bill or existing law, offered during the legislative process. Amendments can add, remove, or modify language.

The process by which Congress allocates funding for government programs. Separate from authorizations — a program can be authorized to exist but receive no money if it isn't appropriated.

A factor in PolicyLogic's scoring that adjusts credit based on how much an official could actually control the outcome. Ranges from 1.0 (full control) to 0.0 (no meaningful role).

Legislation that creates a program or establishes that something is legally permitted. Does not itself provide funding — that requires a separate appropriations bill.

A legislative system with two chambers. The U.S. Congress is bicameral: the House of Representatives and the Senate. Most federal legislation must pass both chambers in identical form.

A special legislative process that allows Congress to pass certain budget-related bills with a simple majority (51 votes) in the Senate, bypassing the usual 60-vote threshold to end debate.

The platform a president or major elected official uses to influence public opinion and pressure other officials. The term originates with Theodore Roosevelt's description of the presidency.

An informal group of legislators who meet to pursue common goals. The term also refers to the voting meeting process used in some states to select presidential nominees instead of primaries.

One body of a bicameral legislature. At the federal level, the two chambers are the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each has different rules, terms, and powers.

The Senate procedure to end debate and bring a matter to a vote. Requires 60 votes for most legislation. Effectively, reaching cloture is the same as having 60 votes to pass a bill.

A subset of legislators organized to review legislation and conduct oversight in a specific policy area. Most legislation must pass through a committee before reaching the full chamber floor.

A temporary joint committee of House and Senate members formed to reconcile differences between House and Senate versions of the same bill. The compromise produced must then be approved by both chambers.

On PolicyLogic scorecards, the estimated percentage of an official's promises that have been substantially delivered. Calculated from outcome scores across all tracked promises.

A factor in PolicyLogic's scoring that adjusts for how hard a promise was to keep, based on legislative barriers, required coalition size, constitutional constraints, and external complexity. Ranges from 1.0 (easy) to 2.5 (extremely hard).

Government spending that is determined through the annual appropriations process — as opposed to mandatory spending (like Social Security and Medicare), which flows automatically under existing law.

Any action taken by the president or a governor that doesn't require legislative approval — including executive orders, memoranda, agency direction, and prosecutorial discretion.

A formal directive from the president (or governor at the state level) to federal agencies and departments. Has the force of law within the executive branch.

The Senate practice of extending debate to delay or block a vote. Originally involved senators speaking continuously; the modern filibuster typically requires only a threat. Stopping it requires 60 votes for cloture.

The 12-month period used for budgeting and financial reporting. The federal fiscal year runs October 1 through September 30 — so fiscal year 2025 began October 1, 2024.

A vote taken by the full membership of a legislative chamber, as opposed to a committee vote. A bill typically requires both a committee vote and a floor vote to advance.

The drawing of legislative district boundaries to favor a particular party or group. Named after Elbridge Gerry, a Massachusetts governor who signed a district shaped like a salamander in 1812.

The chief executive of a U.S. state. Has executive authority over state agencies, usually holds veto power over state legislation, and is the commander of the state National Guard unless federalized.

An elected official serving out the remainder of their term after losing an election or being term-limited. The period between Election Day and the next inauguration is sometimes called the "lame duck session."

A bill or resolution that has been passed by a legislative body. At the federal level, legislation becomes law when passed by both chambers of Congress and signed by the president (or when Congress overrides a veto).

The authority to reject specific provisions of a bill — particularly spending items — without vetoing the entire legislation. Most governors have this power. The president does not (the Supreme Court struck down a federal line-item veto in 1998).

The top elected leader of the majority party in the Senate (or the second-ranking leader in the House, after the Speaker). Controls the Senate floor schedule and has enormous gatekeeping power over what comes to a vote.

The authority an elected official claims to have based on election results. A candidate who wins by a large margin often claims a mandate to pursue their platform. The term is not legally defined and is frequently contested.

The committee process of reviewing, amending, and approving a bill for floor consideration. During markup, committee members can change the bill significantly before it reaches the full chamber.

The political party that holds fewer seats in a legislative chamber. In PolicyLogic scorecards, we flag when senators are in the minority party and apply attribution modifiers accordingly — minority senators have significantly limited ability to pass legislation.

A large bill that bundles many unrelated pieces of legislation into one package. Often used at the end of legislative sessions to move stalled priorities through as a single take-it-or-leave-it vote.

Congress's power to investigate and monitor the executive branch. Includes hearings, subpoenas, and the power to withhold funding. Oversight is a major responsibility of Congress separate from legislation.

Acting primarily in the interest of a political party rather than on the merits of an issue. Partisan votes, gerrymandering, and messaging are driven by party loyalty rather than independent judgment.

When a higher level of government (state or federal) passes a law that overrides or prohibits a lower level (local government) from acting in a particular area.

An election within a party to determine who will run in the general election. Primaries typically have much lower turnout than general elections, which means a small, engaged minority often determines who reaches the general election ballot.

PolicyLogic's per-promise score, normalized to a 0–10 scale. Derived from specificity, actions taken, outcome, attribution, and difficulty. See the methodology page for full detail.

A presidential appointment made while the Senate is in recess, which doesn't require Senate confirmation. The appointment expires at the end of the next Senate session unless the Senate confirms it.

A provision added to a bill that is unrelated to the bill's main subject. Riders are often attached to must-pass legislation — like appropriations bills — to move policies that couldn't pass on their own.

The process by which federal agencies develop specific regulations under authority granted by legislation. Most major laws delegate rulemaking to agencies, which then write detailed rules through a public comment process.

The constitutional division of federal government into three branches: legislative (Congress), executive (president), and judicial (courts). Each branch has distinct powers and can check the others.

A provision in a law specifying that it will automatically expire on a certain date unless renewed by the legislature. Tax cuts and certain national security provisions frequently include sunsets.

A majority greater than a simple majority — commonly two-thirds or three-fifths. Required for constitutional amendments, overriding a presidential veto, and certain other legislative actions.

The executive's power to reject legislation passed by the legislature. At the federal level, a presidential veto can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of both chambers. Most governors have similar veto authority.

Any actor — individual or institutional — whose agreement is required before policy can change. In political science, counting veto players helps explain why some systems produce more change than others.

A legislative leader responsible for counting votes, maintaining party discipline, and ensuring members show up to vote on important legislation. The majority and minority whips are among the most powerful figures in each chamber.